From Shah to Sharia–How the Imperial State of Iran became the Islamic Republic of Iran

Iran’s Independence and Constitution

Although the 1979 revolution grew out of widespread popular dissatisfaction with the shah’s policies and repressive rule, many of the grievances it sought to address extended much further: to British, Russian and U.S. moves for influence in Iran from the 19th century through the Cold War. As Barbara Slavin, an expert on Iranian policy, puts it, “The resentment of foreign aggression, of foreigners taking advantage of a weak Iran is a through line through Iranian history of the last couple of centuries.”[1]

 

The Persian Constitutional Revolution between 1905 and 1911 led to the establishment of an Iranian parliament. The first majlis convened in October 1906 to write a constitution, which was decreed into law in December of 1906.[2] Together with the 1907 Supplementary Fundamental Law, the two documents formed the core of the Iranian Constitution. However, the Constitutional Revolution was marred by internal differences, the Qajar Shahs’ reluctance to concede power to the national assembly, and colonial interests in maintaining control. In late 1911, the majlis refused an ultimatum given by Russia, one that would essentially nullify Iran’s independence. This is because the refusal prompted a Russian invasion of Northern Iran, leading to the deaths of some leading constitutionalists and the flight of other intellectuals and activists. Under threat of foreign occupation of Iran, the second Majlis was dissolved.[3] Though the parliament and the constitution were retained as Iran emerged from its first revolution of the 20th century, the spirit of constitutionalism was dealt a serious blow.

​

Taking advantage of the resultant power vacuum and weakened economy, Reza Khan led a group of soldiers into Tehran in 1921. With the backing of the army, Reza Khan pressured the last Qajar Shah into appointing him prime minister in 1923. Two years later, the Qajar dynasty was deposed and Reza Khan assumed the position of Shah, establishing the Pahlavi Dynasty. 

​

Under Reza Shah, major reforms were initiated in education and law, historically the domain of the clergy. These included compulsory education for all Iranians and the building of hundreds of schools, including the University of Tehran in 1934. Reza Shah also undertook many development projects, including the Trans-Iranian Railroad, which helped to consolidate his own power. Despite the presence of a parliament, parliamentary elections were not democratic, and Reza Shah personally discredited many of his own ministers. The people of Iran “had been denied all share in political and social activities.”

​

Mossadeq and Foreign Intervention

By 1941, with the outbreak of World War II, the Persian Gulf and Iran’s vast oil resources became critical for the success of the British Navy. Iran declared itself neutral, but Reza Shah, who had established strong cultural and technological ties with Germany, was perceived as problematic by the Allies.[4] With Iran under virtual occupation by Allied forces, he was forced to abdicate his throne, and his young son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, was crowned as the new king. Reza Shah would die in exile in 1944.

​

The 1940s saw a resurgence in parliamentarism in Iran. Mohammad Mossadeq was the face of this political movement. He formed the National Front Party in 1949, intending to uphold the 1906 Constitution and to nationalize Iran’s oil industry; the British continued to control most of Iran’s oil revenue through the Anglo-Persian Oil Company. Mossadegh argued that Iran should begin profiting from its vast oil reserves which had been exclusively controlled by the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company.[5] He was appointed prime minister in 1951, and quickly followed through on his nationalisation plan. The National Iranian Oil Company was formed, transforming Mossadeq into a nationalist leader for many Iranians.

Following the nationalisation of the oil industry, Britain placed an oil embargo on Iran, crippling its economy. Such economic difficulties led to a boost in the Iranian communist party’s popularity in a wave of political turmoil. The Shah briefly fled Iran, and likely only held onto power thanks to US intervention. [6]

​

In 1953, a foreign-backed coup d'etat toppled Mossadegh’s government. Britain, having chosen a coup as opposed to military intervention, gained the support of Eisenhower, who ordered the CIA to embark on one of its first covert operations against a foreign government. The CIA pressured the young Shah to dismiss Mossadegh, and undermined Mossadegh’s government through bribery, libel, and orchestrated riots. Agents posing as communists threatened religious leaders, and some 300 people died in firefights in the streets of Tehran. Mossadegh was overthrown and sentenced to three years in prison. The crushing of Iran’s first democratic government ushered in more than two decades of dictatorship under the Shah.[7] Additionally, the CIA helped fund the Shah and helped create his secret service, SAVAK, which went on to become one of the largest points of contention during the Revolution.[8]

 

Pahlavi’s Rule and the White Revolution

The starting point of the White Revolution was a series of land reform policies, which aimed to end feudalism in Iran. Though met with fierce opposition from the clergy, the policy was widely popular as shown by a 1963 referendum. The state bought more than 500,000 hectares of land from landowners and handed them over to some 30,000 destitute families.[9] However, difficulties arose as new farmers lacked seeds and water supplies, prompting many to move to Tehran and other major cities. Within the cities, the Shah’s suppression of leftist movements meant that the only group that could open independent schools and build mosques was the Shiite clergy. According to Iranian-American historian Abbas Milani, the environment of censorship made it impossible for anyone except the clergy to provide a political education to the new population or to have a political organization. Likewise, Iranian journalist Bahman Nirumand noted that “political education was banned from both schools and universities”, and the migration trend from rural areas into the city provided a population that was easy to target and mobilize.[10]

​

Another key part of the White Revolution was the strengthening the role of women in Iranian society. In 1963, women were given the right to vote and were allowed to be political candidates. However, though he reversed his father’s banning of the chador and other modesty veils, Iranian upperclass society remained hostile towards Islamic dress throughout the Pahlavi era, which angered the clerics and the religious population.[11]

 

Along with the Shah’s progressive reforms came suppression and state violence. The SAVAK, the Shah’s secret police, was notorious for state violence and torture. It’s estimated that around 4,000 Iranians were detained by SAVAK during Reza Pahlavi’s rule, with many being executed.[12] When the Shah and his wife visited West Germany to strengthen diplomatic relations in May and June of 1967, crowds gathered to protest the use of torture and political repression in Iran. Confrontations between protesters and the Shah’s security escalated into violence, resulting in the fatal shooting of a student protester, further damaging the Shah’s reputation abroad. SAVAK operations in the 1970s were particularly bloody. In 1975 alone, twenty-two Iranian artists, including poets and film-makers, were jailed for criticizing the regime. One famous writer was forced to “confess” on television, after months of torture, that “his works paid too much attention to social problems and not…to the great achievements of the White Revolution.”[13] Between censorship and violence, domestic discontent towards the Shah was mounting.

 

The two largest threats to the Shah were the Iranian communists and the clergy. The former was staunchly anti-monarchy, and parts of the movement had ties to the Soviet Union. The latter was both anti-communist and anti-monarchy, and retained significant power and influence in Iranian society. Between the two, the Shah felt that the communists posed the larger threat, and mistakenly believed that he could control the religious fundamentalist movement.[14] The Shah formed a relationship with the clergy throughout the 1960s and 70s, in the hopes that this would prevent a communist revolution, believing that the religious foundation was the only way to stay in power. As part of this relationship, the Shah made annual religious pilgrimages to demonstrate his faithfulness, renovated many mosques in the 1970s and built many Quran schools. In return, the clergy supported the Shah in 1967 when he took the title Shāhanshāh, emperor. [15] But not all of the clergy were keen on this relationship. Amongst those against the Shah, one man steadily rose to prominence—Grand Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini.

 

Khomeini’s Rise

Ruhollah Mostafavi Musavi Khomeini was born in Khomeyn, Markazi province. Khomeini’s father was murdered when he was two years old, under suspicious circumstances, and Khomeini maintained until his death that Reza Shah was responsible for the murder.

​

Khomeini became a religious scholar, and by the 1920s had risen to become an Ayatollah–a leading Shia scholar. Throughout the mid-20th century, Khomeini became one of the leading figures amongst clerical opposition to the Shah. In 1963, Khomeini denounced the Shah in a lecture at Feyziyeh School and was subsequently arrested. Though the death penalty was initially considered, it was commuted to exile, and Khomeini spent most of his 14 years in exile in Najaf, Iraq. Exile did not decrease Khomeini’s power however, and he continued to influence the clergy movement within Iran. According to Nirumand, “only Khomeini was radically outspoken against the Shah at the time”, and he thus became the figurehead and the face of the opposition. 

​

Following protests in 1978, the Shah pressured the Iraqi government to expel Khomeini, and the Ayatollah moved to a village near Paris. The Shah had hoped to isolate Khomeini from the protest movement, but Khomeini’s move to Paris led hundreds to flock to see him. Khomeini took advantage of the sudden international attention and argued that he was trying to free his country from oppression. The media exposure also eroded the influence of more moderate clergy such as Ayatollah Shariatmadari. Recordings of Khomeini’s speeches denouncing the Shah, where he was careful not to include any of the more extreme or theocratic ideas expressed previously, were taped and widely distributed throughout Iran, further enhancing his popularity. 

​

1979 Revolution

The Iranian Revolution was a remarkable event. Decades of tension culminated in a four month long revolution that involved every sector, every demographic and every part of the political spectrum. The opposition movements were diverse—ranging from leftists to pro-democracy centrists to Islamists like Khomeini’s movement. [16] As Bianca Devos, an Iranologist at the University of Marburg, noted, “the Iranian Revolution wasn’t purely Islamic at first. It united various forces which were very strong in Iranian history.” For instance, shop keepers at bazaars and markets had their livelihood threatened by the arrival of department stores under Western influence. Likewise, many working class protesters were motivated by the rise in unemployment and economic concerns.

​

The first demonstration against the Shah took place in 1978 in Qom, with crowds protesting a defamatory article about Khomeini published in a large Iranian daily newspaper. The killings of some of these protesters sparked mass protests every forty days, in accordance with Islamic mourning tradition. An unofficial network between mosques and bazaars, typically used to coordinate festival celebrations, increasingly became a tool for political organization. Subsequent protests targeted symbols of the state and of western influences, including cinemas, state-owned banks, and police stations. 

​

The Shah responded with negotiation as opposed to the use of force. So began a trend of protests being met with concessions and appeasements. Censorship was relaxed, a resolution to reduce corruption was drafted, protesters were tried in civilian courts and not military court-martials, and fully democratic elections for the Majlis were promised for 1979. [17] Following riots in February of 1978, the Shah fired all SAVAK officials in the city to appease the opposition, and soon began to dismiss civil servants and government officials whom he felt the public blamed. In the first national concession, he replaced the hardline SAVAK chief General Nematollah Nassiri with the more moderate General.

 

Nasser Moghaddam.

However, the violence worsened, in part because Iran's security forces had not received any riot-control training nor equipment since 1963 and the Carter administration refused to sell non-lethal tear gas and rubber bullets to Iran. [18] 

​

When tensions once again rose in August, the Shah appointed Sharif-Emani as the new Prime Minister, who “effectively began a policy of appeasing the opposition's demands before they even made them." The ruling Rastakhiz Party was abolished and all political parties were legalized, ending 3 years of single party rule in Iran. Many political prisoners were released and 34 SAVAK commanders were dismissed, and newspapers began reporting heavily on the demonstrations as censorship was effectively terminated. The imperial calendar was abolished and the state closed down casinos and nightclubs. The government also began to prosecute corrupt government and royal family members. The Majlis (Parliament) also began issuing resolutions against the government. However, these efforts were in vain as they were followed by the two deadliest incidents of the revolution.

​

Firstly, on August 19th 1978, an arson attack on Cinema Rex in Abadan killed 422 people. Khomeini and his opposition immediately blamed SAVAK and the regime, though later mounting evidence suggested that the clergy was responsible. The attack immediately created an escalation in anger and the magnitude of the popular opposition, leading to widespread slogans like “death to the Shah”.

​

The next incident occurred on 8th September 1978, now known as “Black Friday”. 64 people were killed by the military in the Central Jaleh Square. Thousands had gathered to protest, unaware that martial law had been declared and the military deployed a day earlier. Although the Shah was reportedly horrified by the massacre and publicly condemned the military’s actions, this wasn’t enough to appease the public, and Black Friday is seen by many as the turning point in the Iranian Revolution as it effectively destroyed any possibility of reconciliation. Khomeini immediately claimed that thousands had been killed, as did many western news outlets, fanning the flames of angry protesters. A general strike ensued, including in Iran’s crucial oil industry, paralyzing the country. [19] 

​

In November, secular National Front leader Karim Sanjabi flew to Paris to meet Khomeini, where the two signed a draft constitution that would be "Islamic and democratic". This agreement signaled an official alliance between the clergy and the secular opposition. [20]

​

In January of 1979, France, Germany, Britain and the US met in Guadeloupe to discuss Iran’s crisis. The four countries came to the conclusion that the Shah would not survive the revolution, and suggested his abdication. On the 16th of January, 1979, the Shah and his family left Iran, hoping that the crisis would end soon. 14 days later, Khomeini flew back to Iran. The military allowed the plane to land, and Khomeini’s return was met with a crowd of supporters.

​

The End of the Revolution

Bakhtiar, the last Prime Minister appointed under the Shah, dissolved SAVAK and freed all remaining political prisoners. He ordered the army to allow mass demonstrations, promised free elections and invited the revolutionaries into a government of "national unity". Bakhtiar invited Khomeini back to Iran, with the intention of creating a Vatican-like state in the holy city of Qom, declaring that "We will soon have the honor of welcoming home the Ayatollah Khomeini". However, Khomeini made clear his rejection of Bakhtiar's government in a speech promising, "I shall kick their teeth in. I appoint the government, I appoint the government in support of this nation".

​

On February 5th at his headquarters in the Refah School in southern Tehran, Khomeini declared a provisional revolutionary government and appointed opposition leader Mehdi Bazargan as his own prime minister. As tensions rose between Bakhtiar and Khomeini, the latter called for the occupation of streets by demonstrators. Bakhtiar became increasingly isolated as members of his government defected to Khomeini, and the military was paralyzed, unsure who to support and facing growing demoralization amongst its ranks. [21]

​

The final collapse of the provisional non-Islamist government came at 2 pm on February 11th when the Supreme Military Council declared itself "neutral in the current political disputes... in order to prevent further disorder and bloodshed." All military personnel were ordered back to their bases, effectively yielding control of the entire country to Khomeini. Revolutionaries took over government buildings, TV and radio stations, and palaces of the Pahlavi dynasty, marking the end of the monarchy in Iran. Bakhtiar escaped the palace under a hail of bullets, fleeing Iran in disguise. He was later assassinated by an agent of the Islamic republic in 1991 in Paris.

​

With Ayatollah Khomeini’s return, many in the opposition had hoped that his leadership would be largely spiritual and symbolic, with a coalition of former resistance parties assuming power. Instead, Khomeini and his allies quickly pushed to create a republic that would be solely guided by Islamic teaching and controlled by the clerics. Over the course of 1979, Khomeini and his allies worked to sideline various elements of the resistance. Some were driven into exile, others formed temporary alliances with the rulers but were later eliminated one by one from Iranian politics. Even so, aspects of civil society have persisted and at times pushed back against the government and its clerical control and repression. Since the Revolution, Iran has maintained democratic elements, held elections (albeit among candidates vetted by the Guardian Council), and allowed a relatively vibrant press compared to many of its neighbors. [22] At the same time, however, authorities have routinely disappeared political dissenters and violently enforced compulsory veiling for Iranian women. [23]

​

The history that brought the Iranian regime to power is immensely complicated. The Pahlavi dynasty implemented progressive policies as well as violent and brutal suppression. Likewise, the face of the revolution was an Islamic extremist, yet millions of Iranians formed the heart of the movement, with many fighting for political freedom and humanity. Perhaps Slavin put it best. “Iran has 3,000 years of history of looking up to authoritarian leaders of one sort or another—whether they're shahs or emperors or kings. There is that strain, but there's also the democratic strain dating to the 1906 Constitutional Revolution, when Iran had the first elected parliament in the Middle East. It's not a dictatorship, it's not totalitarian, it's just Iran.” [24]

​

​

​

______

[1]  "What Led to the 1979 Iranian Revolution?," HISTORY, last modified June 26, 2025, https://www.history.com/articles/1979-iranian-revolution-causes. ​

[2]  "A Brief History of 20th-Century Iran," Grey Art Museum, last modified December 21, 2015, https://greyartmuseum.nyu.edu/2015/12/a-brief-history-of-20th-century-iran/. ​

[3]  P. Avery, G. R. Hambly, and C. Melville, The Cambridge History of Iran (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 243.

[4]   "A Brief History of 20th-Century Iran," Grey Art Museum, last modified December 21, 2015, https://greyartmuseum.nyu.edu/2015/12/a-brief-history-of-20th-century-iran/. 

[5]  "Aug. 19, 1953: U.S. and Britain Topple Democratically Elected Government of Iran," Zinn Education Project, last modified January 4, 2026, https://www.zinnedproject.org/news/tdih/iran-coup/.

[6] Timeline - World History Documentaries and Holger Preusse, "1979 Iranian Revolution, Explained | Last Persian Shah," YouTube, May 21, 2024, accessed March 19, 2026, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FXlHxrBJoik&t=2313s. 

[7] "Aug. 19, 1953: U.S. and Britain Topple Democratically Elected Government of Iran,"

[8] Timeline - World History Documentaries and Preusse, "1979 Iranian Revolution, Explained."

[9] Ibid.

[10] Ibid. 

[11]  Ilan Pappé, The Modern Middle East (London: Routledge, 2013), 237.

[12]  Timeline - World History Documentaries and Preusse, "1979 Iranian Revolution, Explained."

[13]  Ervand Abrahamian, Iran Between Two Revolutions (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2021), 442-43. 

[14] Timeline - World History Documentaries and Preusse, "1979 Iranian Revolution, Explained." 

[15] Ibid. 

[16] "What Led to the 1979 Iranian Revolution?."

[17] Joseph Kraft, "Letter from Iran," The New Yorker, December 18, 1978, 44.

[18] Steven Hayward, The Age of Reagan: The Fall of the Old Liberal Order (Crown Publishing, 2009).

[19] "What Led to the 1979 Iranian Revolution?."

[20] Timeline - World History Documentaries and Preusse, "1979 Iranian Revolution, Explained."

[21] Michael Axworthy, Revolutionary Iran: A History of the Islamic Republic (Allen Lane, 2013).

[22] "What Led to the 1979 Iranian Revolution?."

[23] Amnesty International, "Iran 2024," Amnesty International, accessed March 21, 2026, https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/middle-east-and-north-africa/middle-east/iran/report-iran/. 

[24] "What Led to the 1979 Iranian Revolution?."

​

Glossary

Majlis: An Arabic word for “sitting room” used to describe various types of special gatherings among common interest groups of administrative, social or religious nature. In Iran, the parliament is referred to as the Majlis

​

Qajar Shahs: The Qajar dynasty ruled Iran from 1789 until 1925, unifying the country between 1779-1796. Shah, a Persian word for “king”, was the title for the ruling monarch in Iran.

​

Clergy: The body of people ordained for religious duties. In Iran these have historically been Shia scholars, and influenced Iranian politics and society.

​

Abdicate: The act of renouncing one’s throne or office before the end of a term.

​

Libel: A published false statement intended to damage someone’s reputation

​

Feudalism: a system in which people were given land and protection by people of higher rank, and worked and fought for them in return. In Iran, 50% of arable land was owned by a small elite of large landowners.

​

Shiite: An adherent to Shia teachings, one of the two main branches of Islam

​

Grand Ayatollah: A high ranking religious leader amongst Shiite Muslims. An Ayatollah with a significant following is referred to as a Grand Ayatollah.

​

References

Abrahamian, Ervand. Iran Between Two Revolutions. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2021.

​

Amnesty International. "Iran 2024." Amnesty International. Accessed March 21, 2026. https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/middle-east-and-north-africa/middle-east/iran/report-iran/. 

​

"Aug. 19, 1953: U.S. and Britain Topple Democratically Elected Government of Iran." Zinn Education Project. Last modified January 4, 2026. https://www.zinnedproject.org/news/tdih/iran-coup/. 

​

Avery, P., G. R. Hambly, and C. Melville. The Cambridge History of Iran. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.

​

Axworthy, Michael. Revolutionary Iran: A History of the Islamic Republic. Allen Lane, 2013.

​

"A Brief History of 20th-Century Iran." Grey Art Museum. Last modified December 21, 2015. https://greyartmuseum.nyu.edu/2015/12/a-brief-history-of-20th-century-iran/. 

​

Hayward, Steven. The Age of Reagan: The Fall of the Old Liberal Order. Crown Publishing, 2009.

​

Kraft, Joseph. "Letter from Iran." The New Yorker (New York), December 18, 1978.

​

Pappé, Ilan. The Modern Middle East. London: Routledge, 2013.

​

Timeline - World History Documentaries, and Holger Preusse. "1979 Iranian Revolution, Explained | Last Persian Shah." YouTube. 1. May 21, 2024. Accessed March 19, 2026. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FXlHxrBJoik&t=2313s. 

​

"What Led to the 1979 Iranian Revolution?" HISTORY. Last modified June 26, 2025. https://www.history.com/articles/1979-iranian-revolution-causes.