Political Toolkit

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Political Vocabulary I

Written By: Yerin Kang

Published By: Meredith Yuen

Image from Pexels - Cottonbro Studio

Think of politics like a map akin to a detective map — the one with red pins on pictures and strings connecting each pin. In this case, the pins point to countries, and the strings are the international politics connecting one country to another. We must understand this map to answer the perennial question of “why is the world like this?”, and in order to understand this map we must understand the strings that connect the countries. To assist your first step of treading along the strings, this article will provide you with the foundations of international politics. This article covers the background of the United Nations — the central nervous system of international politics — and other intergovernmental organisations as well as basic vocabulary regarding international politics.

Image from Prexels - Hugo Magalhaes

United Nations - The Extremely Brief Background

The Second World War was coming to an end, and Allied countries were more passionate than ever in building a peaceful postwar world, promoting diplomacy and international cooperation (especially after the failure of the League of Nations). As a result, from April to June of 1945, representatives from 50 countries drafted and signed the Charter of the United Nations at the United Nations Conference on International Organisation, marking the beginning of the United Nations. The UN Charter was ratified by the five permanent members of the Security Council and came into power on October 24 1945.

Since then the United Nations proceeded to hold its first meetings of the General Assembly and Security Council in 1946, and the UN headquarters was later established in New York City with construction being completed in 1952. As of 2025 there are 193 member states worldwide and the UN continues to hold the reputation of being the global ‘peacekeeper’.

However, contrary to its grand reputation, this organisation faces significant limitations that make some argue against its peacekeeping abilities:

Power Divisions: The five permanent members of the Security Council hold the most power, including military and economic superiority as well as veto abilities (we will explain this in detail soon). However these major powers often hold conflicting views, creating deadlocks that paralyse the council’s ability to respond effectively in crisis situations (e.g. War in Ukraine and Gaza).
Difficulty in Reform: The lack of consensus among member states make improving the system and strengthening diplomatic efforts (like nuclear disarmament) extremely difficult.
Funding Constraints: The UN struggles with underfunding, as many member states delay or withhold their financial contributions. This not only affects the organisation's ability to take significant actions but also creates a power imbalance due to the majority of the funding being supplied by a few affluent countries.
Geopolitical Power Imbalance: Aside from funding, the general geopolitical power imbalance between member states complicates decision making due to its efforts to balance the interests of powerful countries as well as smaller states.
Limited Enforcement Power: This is a major one. The UN does not have its own military or arms; it is heavily reliant on the military and economic contributions of member states. Additionally, aside from a select few bodies like the Security Council, most of its resolutions are not legally binding therefore carry no obligations for member states to follow the ‘recommendations’. All these complications result in the UN’s actions often being slow or insufficient.

Despite these limitations the UN still remains the main platform for global dialogue and multilateral cooperation.

Principal Organs of the UN

The UN has two sets of bodies — the principal organs and subsidiary organs. The main bodies consist of six organs that were all established under the UN Charter (linked here) in 1945. These are the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, the International Court of Justice, and the Secretariat. Below are brief descriptions for each organ:

General Assembly (GA)

Purpose:
- Main policymaking and representative organ of the UN
- Discusses issues and recommends solutions for international issues and peace (unless it directly involves conflict in which case it should be under the jurisdiction of the Security Council)
- Approves the UN budget and financial contributions made by each member state
- Appoints non-permanent members of other councils (like the Security Council) as well as the Secretary-General
It is the only body with universal representation meaning all 193 member states are equally represented (no veto powers).
Resolutions from the General Assembly are all recommendations, and nothing except those pertaining to the budget are legally binding.

Security Council (SC)

Purpose:
- Maintains international peace and security through investigating disputes or situations leading to conflict
- Authorises peacekeeping operations (involvement of arms to help maintain peace)
- Recommends admissions of new UN members, can also participate in appointing the Secretary-General as well as the judges in ICJ
There are 15 members with 5 of them being permanent: China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The other 10 members are elected in the General Assembly every two years.
Each member has one vote but decisions require at least 9 votes including the votes of all five permanent members. This grants the permanent members veto power, meaning they have the power to unilaterally reject a decision.

Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

Purpose:
- Discusses and formulates policy recommendations for economic, social, humanitarian related issues
- Oversees functional commissions on topics such as human rights, narcotics, population, social development, and the status of women
There are 54 member states elected by the General Assembly for three year terms. The seats are distributed based on geography as they want equitable geographic representation (e.g. Asia-Pacific has 11 seats, Africa has 14 seats).
Their resolutions are not legally binding.

Trusteeship Council

Purpose:

Oversees administration of trust territories to ensure their transition to independence (Trust Territories: territories that are not self-governing placed under the Trusteeship Council. They were mostly former League of Nations territories taken from Axis powers after World War II)
Reviews reports from administering authorities on the political, social, and educational advancement of inhabitants of trust territories (it can also conduct visits and take necessary actions to make sure everything is being effectively administered)

The council initially supervised 11 trust territories, however as these territories one by one achieved independence or self governance, the Trusteeship Council suspended its operations.
As of 2025 it consists of the five permanent members of the Security Council.
Although it continues to legally exist, its future roles are uncertain.

International Court of Justice

Purpose:
- Settles legal disputes between states based on international law
- Provides legal advice to UN organs and specialised agencies upon request
It consists of 15 independent judges elected by the General Assembly and Security Council every 9 years (no two judges can be from the same country).
Although decisions are binding to the parties involved, it depends on the Security Council for formal enforcement powers.

Secretariat

Purpose:
- As the executive branch of the UN, it carries out the day-to-day work mandated by principal organs.:
Secretary-General: The chief administrative officer of the UN appointed by the General Assembly upon the Security Council’s recommendation (for 5 year terms)
It also has international staff who operate across global duty stations and in peacekeeping missions.
As of 2025, the Secretary-General is António Guterres

Subsidiary Organs of the UN

Subsidiary organs are created by the six principal organs to assist them in the mission. There are many subsidiary organs, so we will only cover the more significant ones: United Nations Children’s Fund, World Health Organisation, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organisation, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, and the United Nations Human Rights Council.

United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF)

Purpose:
- Provides humanitarian and developmental aid to children across the globe
- Advocates for children’s rights and protection (both from conflicts and in health related crises)
Governed by an Executive Board of 36 members elected by ECOSOC

World Health Organisation (WHO)

Purpose:
- Directs and coordinates international health within UN system; sets standards and policies regarding global health
All member states of the United Nations can take part.
Non-member states can submit applications to take part.

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)

Purpose:
- Protects the rights of refugees, asylum seekers, and stateless persons through finding lasting solutions
There are currently 137 countries in the UNHCR.

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)

Purpose:
- Promotes international collaboration in education, science, and culture through setting global standards, developing cooperation tools, producing knowledge for public policies, and building global networks of sites and institutions
As of 2025 consists of all 193 member states except for Liechtenstein, and one non-member state — the Cook Islands

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC)

Purpose:
- Facilitates the exchange of information, research, training, and public education regarding crimes
- Crimes include illicit drugs, criminal acts, corruption, and terrorism
All member states can participate in activities

United Nations Human Rights Council

Purpose:
- Promotes and protects human rights worldwide
- Conducts investigations into human rights violations and makes recommendations
Composed of 47 UN member states elected by the General Assembly every three years

Other Intergovernmental Organisations

The following organisations are what people commonly believe to be part of the United Nations, but are actually independent organisations that are not directly linked to the UN:

North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)

Type: Intergovernmental military alliance
Members: 32 members, with 30 European and 2 North American states
Purpose: Collective Defense as established through the treaty (linked here)
NATO often collaborates with the UN on peacekeeping and security operations, but NATO is completely independent and only collaborates on agreed mandates.

European Union (EU)

Type: Economic and political union
Members: 27 European countries
Purpose: To promote economic cooperation, peace, and integration between European countries
The EU is the largest financial contributor to the UN budget and many EU states are active in the UN. The EU also has a permanent observer status at the GA, but it is a regional supranational body therefore is not part of the UN.

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

Type: International financial institution
Members: 190+ countries
Purpose: To promote global monetary cooperation, ensure financial stability, facilitate trade, and provide loans to countries struggling economically
The IMF was established at a UN-organised conference and maintains close ties with the UN, but it is a specialised agency and independent legal entity rather than an official organ

International Criminal Court (ICC)

Type: International tribunal for criminal prosecutions
Members: 120+ countries
Purpose: Prosecutes individuals for genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and aggression

The Rome Statute (linked here) which established the ICC was negotiated under UN support and the ICC works closely with many UN organs, but it is an independent legal entity and only countries that ratified the Rome Statute are members

Countries / Territories that are Not Part of the UN

The following are countries or territories that many think are part of the UN but actually are not. Most of the following are not part of the UN due to political complications or due to it being under the jurisdiction of another state:

Vatican City
Palestine
Taiwan
Hong Kong
Macau
Greenland
Puerto Rico

Image from Prexels - Jan van der Wolf

International Politics Vocabulary

Lastly, we would like to clarify the definitions of some key political terms that you may encounter when reading about international politics:

Sovereignty: The idea of a state having supreme authority to govern itself.
A State vs The State: A state is any territory that has its own government, but when some mention “the state” in local contexts it refers to the government of the country.
Invasion v Annexation: Invasion means entering a territory with military force usually in order to occupy it. Annexation on the other hand is the actual formal incorporation of one state’s territory to another. Annexation can occur without invasions, or be the result of them.
Nation: A group of people united by a common culture or descent that inhabits a particular territory or country
Actors: In political contexts, this refers to any organisation or individual that can influence political processes
Diplomacy: The process and practice of communication and negotiation between actors in international politics